Kingdom Fungi: Definition, Characteristics, & Examples

Fungi itself according to Tainter and Baker fungi is a microorganism that does not contain chlorophyll in their structure. Fungi itself does not develop by forming roots, stems, and leaves as well as on plants that looks high.

1. Characteristics of fungi (mushrooms)

a. Fungi are a eukaryotic organism that is, in which the cells have a cell wall composed of chitin. Fungi do not have chlorophyll so that he is heterotroph and his life as a parasite, saprophyte, or also mutual example, lichens.
b. There are unicellular fungi (called yeasts) and there is also a multicellular. Multicellular fungi are composed of threads of hyphae that form as webbing, called mycelium. No fungal hyphae on the sectional (septum) da tones are not insulated (aseptum) and have a lot of core called senositik. The mycelium can be divided into vegetative mycelium (to absorb food) and mycelium generative (for reproduction).
c. Reproduction of fungi itself vegetatively by carapembentukan bud (in yeast), fragmentation, and the formation of asexual spores (such sporangiophores or konidiospora). While fungi are generative reproduction is the formation of sexual spores (zigospora, ascospores and basidiospores) conducted singami (ie the union of different hyphae jens).

d. Fungi habitat is on land (terrestrial) and damp in places.

2. Classification and role of fungi

Based sexual spores can be produced, fungi can be divided into three division: Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Fungi that sexual reproduction is unknown can be grouped into Deuteromycota.

a. Zygomycota can produce sexual spores and spores aseksualnya zigospora sporangiophores. Zygomycota has hyphae that are not insulated (senositik). As for some examples Zygoomycota among others Rhizopus oryzae (instrumental in the production of tempeh), Rhizopus stolonifer (can damage the bread), Rhizopus nigricans (damaging the fruit), Mucor javanicus (instrumental in the production of Tapai), Mucor mucedo, and Pilobolus (act as decomposers).
b. Ascomycota can produce sexual spores called ascospores produced by the ascus formed in fruiting bodies called askokarp, while the spore form of konidiospora aseksualnya. Ascomycota have insulated hyphae. As an example of Ascomycota itself, among others, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (used as a developer of bread and also for the manufacture of a minimum alcoholic), Aspergillus wentii (used for the manufacture of soy sauce), Penicillium chrysogenum (for the manufacture of antibiotics), Saccharomcyces ellipsoideus (instrumental in the making of wine), Neurospora sitophila (instrumental in making oncom), Ventura inaequalis (damaging apple), and Claviceps purpurea (ergot can cause disease in wheat).
c. Basidiomycota can produce sexual spores basidiospora terbantuk in fruiting bodies called basidiokarp. Basidiomycota have insulated hyphae. As a few examples, among others Basidiomcyota Auricularia polytricha (mushroom), Volvariella volvacea (mushroom), Puccinia graminis (rusts that may be parasite on maize and wheat), and Amanita muscaria (can cause hallucinations when eaten).
d. Deuteromycota is kolompok fungi (mushrooms) are not known sexual spores. If the sexual spores can be identified, then the fungi in this group will be reclassified. For example, Monilia sitophila (oncom fungi) can be transformed into Neurospora crassa after known to produce ascospores in sexual reproduction.

3. Moss crust and Mycorrhizae

a. Lichens are symbiotic mutualism between fungi (Ascomycota or Basidiomycota) with monera (Cyanobacteria). Fungi derive nutrition from the photosynthesis performed Cyanobacteria, whereas water Cyanobacteria derive from the presence of fungi.
b. Mycorrhiza is a symbiosis of mutualism between fungi with the roots of higher plants. Fungi obtain organic material of the host plants, while the plants get water and minerals are absorbed by the fungus.

Kingdom Plantae

Plantae are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that have cell walls and chlorophyll. Plants and some types of algae are a major part of this kingdom. Plants have the ability to produce their own food (autotrof) with chlorophyll owned. Chlorophyll makes plants become dominated by the color green. Kingdom's role as producers in the food chain. There are more than 400,000 species in the kingdom Plantae.

1. Origins Kingdom Plantae

Some evidence suggests that there has been a algae on land 1.2 billion years ago. Plantae has existed since the since the Ordovician period (450 million years ago), but not in the form of plants as now until the Silurian period (420 million years ago). Approaching the Devonian period, about 360 million years ago, there are various varieties of plants both in terms of shape and size. Then came the flowering plants in the Triassic period (200 million years ago). Grasses emerged in the mid-Tertiary period (40 million years ago).

2. Development of Understanding Kingdom Plantae

At first, all organisms are divided into two, namely the plant and animal kingdom. Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC) gives the sense that the plant is an organism that does not move, while the animal moves to seek makanan.Kemudian Linnaeus (1707-1778) made the modern classification system that divides the two entire organisms into kingdoms vegetabilia (later called Plantae) and animalia.

Then, fungi (mushrooms) and several groups of algae removed from the kingdom Plantae. Although they are similar to plants, but they do not have some characteristic plants. Do not have chlorophyll, for example.

3. Restrictions Kingdom Plantae

Beyond the formal context, the word "plant" refers to organisms that have certain characteristics such as multicellular, produces cellulose, and able to perform photosynthesis.

Many of the criticisms that arise due to fungi belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Because fungi get food from the remnants of organic materials, rather than through the process of photosynthesis. In addition, the cell walls of fungi is not composed of the same material to the plant and it is more like animals. Finally, the fungi were separated from the plant and make its own kingdom, namely the kingdom of fungi.

Most algae are also separated from the kingdom Plantae have no chlorophyll. Plants in the narrow sense is regarded as a descendant of green algae.

4. Characteristics Kingdom Plantae

Here is a list of traits kingdom Plantae. The characteristics that distinguish this Plantae kingdom to kingdom fungi and some types of algae.

    Multicellular (having many cells)
    There are cell walls made of cellulose
    Eukaryotic
    Obtain food by photosynthesis assisted by sunlight
    reproduce sexually (pistil and stamens) or asexual (grafting, budding, cuttings, etc.)
    Live on land or water
    Autrotrof (can make their own food)

In addition, Plantae organs and organ systems. Leaves to collect sunlight that is used to make glucose. Have to strengthen the roots of plants and absorb water. Sexual reproduction is a flower.

5. Distribution of Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae is divided into three divisions, namely Bryophyta (mosses), pterydophyta (spikes), and the division Spermatophyta (seed plants).

5.1. Bryophyta

Moss included in this division. Bryophyta not have a true internal organs such as stems, leaves or roots. They have a small rhizoid which makes them able to stick in the ground. They grow in the shade and moist, like in the rain forest. Experiencing metagenesis.

5.2. Pteridophyta

Nails included in this division. Pteridophyta has had kormus or network carrier and has had a real organ. They reproduce asexually by spores. Ferns can live on land, especially tropical rain forest areas. However, there are several types of nails that live floating in the water. As with Bryophyta, pteridophyta also experienced metagenesis.

5.3. Spermatophyta

Spermatophyta is a division that has a characteristic that is seeded. Seed is the embryo of a new individual and is the result of fertilization of the pistil and stamens in the flower. There are two subdivisions namely the gymnosperms (seed in the open) and angiosperms (seeded closed). Seed plants are in the ground and some are in the water (eg lotus).

6. Benefits Kingdom Plantae

The study of plants is called botany. Focuses on the modern botanical diversity of food. This is because the number of people growing food while the less. Therefore, cultivation is needed. The plant is divided into agro-economic agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.

6.1. Food

Most human nutrients derived from plants. Mostly derived from cereals such as rice, corn, and wheat. In addition, the food is also derived from tubers such as potatoes and cassava. Humans also eat vegetables, spices, and some types of fruits, nuts, herbs, and several kinds of flowers.

There are several types of beverages produced from plants such as coffee, tea, wine, beer and alcoholic beverages. Sugar itself mostly derived from sugar cane and honey are essentially derived from flowers.

Cooking oils and fats derived from corn, soybeans, palm oil, sunflower, olive. Flavorings such as monosodium glutamate derived from sugar cane.

Livestock for meat to be used as food are all herbivores that eat mostly grass or green foliage.

6.2. Non-Food Products

Wood is used as raw material for building, furniture, paper, playing cards, musical instruments, and sports equipment. Clothing made from cotton or synthetic fibers made from cellulose. There is also a fuel derived from plants, namely firewood and oil biofuel. Petroleum and coal are fossil fuels derived from plants. Many medical drugs are made from plants. Herbal medicines and food supplements mostly derived from plants. Pesticides derived from plants. As well as a lot of products derived from plants such as rubber, soaps, paints, tannin, wax, shampoo, perfume, cosmetics, oils, plastics, inks, chewing gum, and many more.

6.3. Aesthetic Function

The main element of the park is mainly ornamental plants and grasses. The function of which is to beautify the garden courtyard or the environment. Plants can also be used as a venue for artistic creations such as bonsai. Various types of flowers are very beautiful and some of them used as a cut flower, very costly. Botanical tour became one of the popular tourist because it promises a calm and green. Many works of art such as relief and batik inspired from plants.

6.4. Negative Impact

Some species are poisonous, painful because there are thorns, even deadly to animals and humans. Plants that may fly its pollen can trigger allergies for some people who are sensitive. There are some plants that cause irritation or itching of the skin if touched. There are also herbs that have psychotropic substances such as tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and opium. Smoking can damage your health can even cause death, while some types of drugs have harmful effects for humans. Some countries even prohibit some types of drugs except if only for medical purposes.

Classification of Living Things

The diversity of living things on earth are very diverse and the longer multiply, of course diversity also increases. With the existence of living beings whose numbers millions that's how we're going to learn? To study the living creatures, human beings trying to simplify life by classifying living things is based on the traits possessed.

In the group that has the same characteristics that must be found again differences. Then formed groups of smaller based on the equation traits possessed, so that would be obtained the smallest group with the same characteristic equation. Grouping the study of living things with a certain system called classification or taxonomy. More details, see the explanation of the classification of living things based on the following characteristics!

In the 18th century Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a biologist from Sweden introduced a classification based on structural similarity. Living beings who have the same body structure is placed in a single group. When in a group found differences, then separated into smaller groups again and so on. This results in each small group has the characteristic equation. In this way, the creatures that exist on the surface of the earth is divided into two (2) large groups of the living world, namely: the animal or plant world or Animalia and Plantae. Furthermore, each world will be divided into smaller groups called taxa-taxa. Animal world will be divided into taxon-taxon as follows:

a. Kingdom or empire.
b. Phyla.
c. Class or classes.
d. The Order or the nation.
e. Familia or tribe.
f. Genus or clan.
g. Species or type.


In the plant world is divided into taxon-taxon as follows:
a. Kingdom or empire.
b. Division.
c. Class or classes.
d. The Order or the nation.
e. Familia or tribe.
f. Genus or clan.
g. Species or type.


Moreover, in the classification of living things using a system called the Binomial System Nomenclature (double name system). In the binomial nomenclature system has rules as follows:

    Species consists of two words, the first word indicates the genus and the second word indicates the nature of the specifications.
    The first word begins with a capital letter and the second word in lowercase.
    Using the Latin or scientific or language dilatinkan with italicized or underlined.

Example: Name of species Bananas; Musa paradisiaca L
Genus: Musa
Species: paradisiaca
Offender identifiers by Linnaeus shortened by L

Some reasons for using the classification of the Latin, because:

    So that there is no mistake in identifying living things because there is no living creature name exactly the   same.
    The scientific name is rarely changed.
    The scientific name is written in the same language around the world.

According RH.Whittaker supported by many biologists, in 1969 developed a classification of living things using the five-kingdom system as follows:
1. Monera
2. Protists
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

Animalia Kingdom

Animalia kingdom is a kingdom that has members who are the most numerous and varied. Broadly speaking, the kingdom animalia can be grouped into two classes, namely class of vertebrates (animals with backbones) and invertebrate groups (invertebrates. And the following will explain the characteristics, the structure of the body layer, and the classification of the kingdom animalia.

A. Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

Members kingdom animalia have characteristics that distinguish it from the other kingdom-the kingdom, such as:

    -Hewan A multicellular eukaryotic organisms.
    -Bersifat Heterotrophic, in contrast to plants that can produce their own food through photosynthesis (autotrophs), animals can not produce their own food so that will eat the organic material that is so.
    -Not Have cell walls, the largest component of animal cells composed of the structural protein collagen.
    -Have Nerve tissue and muscle tissue so that it can actively moving (motile).
    -Most Reproduce sexually.
    -cycle Life is dominated by the form diploid (2n).

B. Body Structure Animalia

In the kingdom animalia classification, there are at least two characteristics that distinguish the structure of the body of an animal. The two characteristics, among others based on the symmetry of the body and the body layer.

1. Symmetry body

Based on the symmetry of the body, the animal can be divided into animals that have bilateral symmetry of the body and the body of an animal which has a radial symmetry.

    Bilateral symmetry, is an animal whose organs are arranged adjacent to the other parts. If taken to cut the line from front to back, it will show the body parts of the same body between the left and right. Animals are symmetrical bilateral besides having the peak (oral) and the base (aboral), also has a top side (dorsal) and the underside (ventral), the head (anterior) and the tail (posterior), and side (lateral) ,

    Radial symmetry, is an animal that has a layer of body circular (round). Animals with radial symmetry have only two parts, namely the peak (oral) and bottom (aboral). Radially symmetrical animals referred to as radiata, animals are included in this group include sponges, cnidarians and echinoderms.

radial symmetry, bilateral

2. Layer Body

In its development into mature individuals, animals will form the body layer. Based on the number of layers of the body, Hawan grouped into diploblastik and tripoblastik.

    Diploblastik animal, an animal that has two layers of cells. The outermost layer is called the ectoderm, while the inner layer is called the endoderma. Examples of animal diploblastik are cnidarians.

    Animal triploblastik, is an animal which has three layers of cells. The outermost layer is called eksoderma, the middle layer is called mesoderma, and the inner layer is called endoderma. Ectoderm will develop into the epidermis and the nervous system, mesoderma will develop into the digestive gland and intestine, while endoderma will develop into muscle tissue.

3. The body cavity (coelomic)

Animals triploblastik still can be classified again by the body cavity (coelomic) has. On the animal's own body cavity can be divided into three types, namely aselomata, pseudoselomata, and selomata.

    Aselomata, is a solid bodied animals that do not have a cavity between the gut with the outer body. Animals including aselomata is flatworm (Platyhelmintes).

    Pseudoselomata, is an animal that has a cavity in the body cavity (pseudoselom). The fluid-filled cavity that separates the digestive organs and outer body wall. The cavity is not limited tissue derived from mesoderma. Animals including pseudoselomata is Rotifera and nematodes.

    Selomata, is an animal that contains the hollow body fluids and have a limit derived from mesoderma network. Inner and outer layers of tissue surrounding the cavity of these animals and connect dorsal to ventral forming mesenteron. Mesenteron serves as a hanger organs. Selomata itself is divided into two types, namely protoselomata and deutroselomata. Examples of animals including protoselomata among other molluscs, annelids and arthropods. While animals are included in deutroselomata among others Echinodermata and Chordata.

C. Classification Kingdom Animalia

Animalia kingdom members are classified into nine phyla, among others:

1. Sponge (animal porous).
2. Cnidaria (hollow animals).
3. Platyhelmintes (flatworms).
4. Nemathelmintes (roundworm).
5. annelids (segmented worms).
6. molluscs (soft-bodied animals).
7. Arthropods (segmented animals).
8. Echinodhermata (animals skinned thorns).
9. Chordata (animals with).

Biodiversity

Of the many organisms that inhabit the earth, no matter which pair of absolutely equal to all things. The reality shows us that the universe is found in the diversity of living things or also called biodiversity. Biological diversity (biodiversity) is the diversity of organisms that exhibit variations in whole or totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. Overall genes, species and ecosystems is the foundation of life on earth.


Given the importance of biodiversity for the lives of biodiversity need to be studied and preserved. The high level of biodiversity on the earth's surface to encourage scientists are looking for the best way to learn, by classification. Biodiversity covers various differences or variations in form, appearance, number, and the traits are visible at various levels, both the level of genes, species level and the ecosystem level. Based on this, the experts distinguish biodiversity into three levels, namely the diversity of genes, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.


1. Gene diversity

Or plasma nuftah gene is a chemical substance that determines the nature of heredity contained in the chromosomal locus. Every individual living beings have a chromosome that is composed of threads of hereditary descent contained in the cell nucleus. So that all the organisms that exist on this earth has a basic framework components declined same nature. The basic framework is composed of thousands to millions of decreasing factors that regulate the procedure of inheritance organisms. Although the basic framework of the whole organism the same genes, but the composition or arrangement, and the number of factors within the framework may vary. Differences in the number and arrangement of these factors will cause the gene diversity.

In addition, each individual has many genes, in the event of a marriage or a cross between the individuals of different character will produce offspring that more and more variations. Because when the cross will occur merging individual genes through sex cells. This is what causes the higher diversity of genes. Examples of these genes is the level of diversity of plant white roses with red roses which have differences, which differ in terms of flower color. In the process, the determining factor is not only found in genes alone, but there are also other factors that play a role influencing this biodiversity, the environment. Trait that appears on each individual is an interaction between genes and environment. Two individuals have the structure and sequence of the same gene, do not necessarily have the same shape as well as environmental factors affecting the appearance (phenotype) or form. For example, people living in mountainous areas with people living in coastal areas have differences in terms of the number eritrositnya. The number of erythrocytes people living in the mountainous regions more than those who live on the coast due to adaptation to the oxygen content in the environment. In mountainous areas lower than the oxygen content in the beach area. So phenotype cheek mountains generally more reddish than the beach.


2. Diversity of species

Species or types have a sense, individuals who have common morphological, anatomical, physiological and able to interbreed with one another (inter hybridization) that produce fertile offspring (fertile) to continue his generation. Diversity of shows throughout the variations found in living things among species. Differences between species of organisms in the family more conspicuous so more easily observed than differences between individuals within a species.

In the legume family we know peanuts, beans, green beans, peas, and others. Among the types of nuts we can easily distinguish because among them are found the same characteristics. However, the size of the body or trunk, habits, forms of fruits and seeds, as well as different tastes. Other examples of visible diversity of the coconut trees, nut trees and also on the palm tree.



3. Ecosystem diversity

An ecosystem can be defined as a relationship or mutual interaction between living things with each other living beings and also between the living and the environment. Every living thing will only grow and develop in an appropriate environment. At an environment not only inhabited by a species of living beings, but also to be inhabited by a species other appropriate. Consequently, in an environment there will be a variety of different types of living creatures that coexist peacefully. They seem to blend with the environment. In a suitable environment here every living creature will be shaped by the environment. Instead, the creature formed by the environment will shape the environment. So, between the living and the environment will occur dynamic interaction.

Differences condition abiotic components (not live) in an area causes lifeforms (biotic) that can adapt to the different environments. As a result, the earth's surface with variations in conditions of high abiotic components that will generate ecosystem diversity. There are ecosystems of tropical rain forests, deciduous forests, grasslands, tundra, desert, fields, fields, freshwater, brackish water, sea, and others. Biotic and abiotic components in various regions vary in both the quality and quantity of these components. This is what causes the formation of diverse ecosystems on earth. Coexistence between the components of the ecosystem without disturbing each other, and in case of extinction or disturbance to one of its members it will interfere with the survival of other organisms. A change in the components of this ecosystem will affect the equilibrium (homeostasis) these ecosystems.

As a system, in every ecosystem will happen interrelated processes. For example, taking food, energy transfer or energetics, recycling substances or materials, and productivity or the result of the entire ecosystem. Examples of biodiversity ecosystem level is the palm tree grows in many coastal areas, palm trees grow in the mountains, while the palm trees and nut grows well in low-lying areas.

Biological Sciences

Science born of a series of activities of human reason systematically arranged. All the so-called science always have requirements or specific traits. The nature and characteristics of such knowledge is to have the object has an object to have the object has an object has an object, using methods, systematic, universal, objective, analytical, and verification. Here is the identification of the nature and characteristics of science or the science produced by humans.


1. Has the object

Every science generally limit themselves in terms of a particular study. For example mathematics examine the object numbers, object physics at physical objects, such chemical substances and reactions occurring constituent, and biology focuses on objects and living beings that ever existed in this world.


2. Have a method

The growing science can not happen by accident or random, but follow a particular method. In studying the object of study of biology to use the scientific method to discover the truth. This method has been standardized for use and carried by anyone. Science developed using scientifically recognized this truth.


3. Systematic

To be easily assessed, science must be composed from simple to more complex. The underlying concept should contain such a relationship of mutual support rather than contradict each other. For example, in biology presented the concept of cell, tissue, organ systems and individuals who showed a hierarchy of mutually reinforcing relationship object of study. This is called systematically arranged.


4. Universal

Truth presented in science should be valid in general. In biology, the laws or the rules of the science that is also true in general. For example, the rules of generative reproduction is a way of reproducing organisms should be preceded by the fusion of two cells (male and female gametes). This applies to all types of organisms.


5. Candid

The statement in a science must be honest, that describes the condition as it is, it contains actual data or information, free from prejudice, inequality, or personal interests. When science is not objective it will be difficult to develop, let alone to be utilized for the welfare of mankind.


6. Analytic

The study of a science going towards things that are more specifically as part of, the nature, roles and relationships. To understand the things that are special needs special assessment anyway, so there is a relationship between being studied as part of the analysis results. Therefore, a science will be divided into various branches of science with a more specific studies. Examples biology has a branch of zoology, botany, physiology, anatomy, genetics and embryology.


7. Verification

Truth in science is not absolute but is open or verification, also known as scientific truth. That is, something which was originally assumed to be true one day may become one if found new evidence against the truth before. Still remember the spontaneous generation theory which states that living things come from nonliving matter? Louis Pasteur discovered new evidence through experiments, so the theory collapsed and act biogenesis theory until now.

Defintion of Root

Root is the bottom of the plant that usually develops below ground level. There are some plants have roots that grow in the air. The shape and structure of the highly diverse roots. This situation is related to the root function as a store of food reserves, succulent roots, the roots of breath, and hair roots. If dicotyledonous plant seeds germinate, the bottom will come out roots. The root is also called the radicle which will penetrate the soil. This root is called the primary root. After some period of roots will form roots branches called secondary roots. Anatomy of the roots can be observed by means of transversely cutting the roots. The sequence from the outside to the inside, root anatomical structure composed of epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and a central cylinder (stele).



a. The epidermis


Root epidermal cells, thin-walled and usually do not have cuticle. The most distinctive characteristic of the root epidermis is the formation of root hairs. Hair root is the organ that is very suitable for making water and mineral salts.


b. Cortex


In the next part in the epidermis are composed of cortical parenchyma tissue that acts to store food reserves. Relatively spherical shape of the cell cortex (isodiametris) with clear intercellular space. Water and mineral salts from the roots will pass through the cortical cells through intercellular space. This event is called extra transport vasikuler in apoplast. Cortical cells contain food reserves in the form of starch and other substances. Part of the cortex are endothermic network consisting of a single layer of cells with a thick cell wall containing wax. The endothermic located between the cylinder center with the cortex.


c. Endodermis


On the walls of the cells are plasmodesmata. Endodermis is a network that can regulate the importation of water into the transport network are located in the central cylinder. Among the phloem to xylem cambium interfasis are involved in the formation of the fingers pith (parenchyma tissue that connects between the pith and bark). The pith parenchyma tissue located at the center of the root or stem. At the endodermis cell wall associated with another endodermis cell, there is a layer of cork called kaspari tape. The endothermic who do not have a band called cell kaspari successor.


d. Stele (cylinder center)


Endodermis contained inside the cylinder area which occupies the center of the central part of the root. The primary vascular tissue surrounded by a collection of cells called perisikel adjoining tissue. This network is the parenchyma. Perisikel are actively dividing (meristematis), such as the cambium so called perikambium, and capable of forming root branch (secondary roots). On the inside there perisikel secondary network, file phloem vessels, and xylem. This file is a secondary network which is surrounded by parenchymal tissue. Phloem and cambium secondary xylem formed by fascists and lead to increased width of the trunk diameter. Fascist cambium is the boundary between the bark with wood.

Definition of Plant Stem

Plant stem is an organ whose function is to enforce the plant body. In addition, the rod serves to connect the roots and leaves. In the trunk there is a book called the leaf emergence (nodes). At every book can be found in one, two, or more leaves. Distance books with each other is called internodus. Rod has a composition of epidermal tissue, stem cortex and central cylinder (stele). The stem outer layer of cells is limited by the meeting which has a distinctive shape, has the guard cells, idioblas, and various types of Tricom. In the first year, the stem epidermis is replaced by a layer of cork.

Cortex trunk is a cylinder-shaped area between the epidermis and the central cylinder. The cortex consists of thin-walled parenchyma tissue. In some plants, stem parenchyma serves as a means of photosynthesis.


a. The composition of the anatomical stem dikotil


Anatomy stem dicotyledonous plant consists of bark, wood, and pith. Pith is very hard to find in an old wooden trunk. The bark of the outer portion has epidermis. In the epidermis there is a cork cambium (felogen). Felogen working outwards to form a layer of cork covering epidermis called felem, while working towards the so-called feloderm. Group epidermal cells are not covered with cork substance called lenticels that serves to evaporation and gas exchange. In the bark there parenchyma tissue, tissue backer, file phloem, reed phloem, accompanist cells and phloem parenchyma. Sklerenkim network is a constituent fibers of the phloem.


File phloem vessels adjacent to the xylem vessels. Among the files xylem and phloem vessels are vessels or cambium cambium fascist. Cambium fascist part that separates the bark. If the location of the phloem and xylem side by side, the type of bond is called collateral vessels. Collateral types are divided into two, namely collateral collateral open and closed. Collateral is called open if there cambium between the phloem and xylem, while the covered collateral, if between the phloem and xylem no cambium. Wood is the part that lies between the fascist cambium pith. Wood is composed of channels (trachea), which is cell death and the location of the interlocking edges. The channel serves to channel water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.


In the wood there is trakeid the elongated cell shape, sharp edges, and the smaller size of the trachea. Trakeid function supporting or reinforcing rods. Fascist shaping wood cambium inwards and outwards bark. Wood formation activity is more active than the formation of the bark. This resulted in a larger portion of wood bark.


Wood formation in the rainy season is more active than the dry season. Thus, causing a second difference limit the activity of the formation of the so-called circle of wood. In the country that has four seasons, each year we will get four perimeter years. Pith is the parenchymal tissue that serves to store food reserves. Pith found in young stems. Pith is not found on older stems, because the pith getting lost in line with the increase in diameter of the stem.


b. The composition of the anatomical stem dicotyledonous herbaceous plants


Herbaceous plants, such as legumes, outer epidermis there. Herbaceous plant stems do not have the cork cambium. Anatomy of dicotyledonous stems of herbaceous plants, are not so different, both structure and function. The differences are clear, namely the cambium activity that causes the difference in the phloem and xylem. Number of phloem and xylem formed less. Part of the cortex is composed store food reserves.


c. Anatomy stems of monocots


Monocot stem anatomy is very different from dicotyledonous stem anatomy. The epidermis monocot plants have thick cell walls. Under the epidermis there is a thin tissue that consists of a network sklerenkim which is bark. Bark act to strengthen and harden the outer part of the stem. Vascular bundles spread across the trunk, but most in the areas closer to the bark. Phloem vascular bundles xylem surrounded by side with sklerenkim. Type of vascular bundles is called vibrovassal. At monocots there cambium. Thus, the growth that occurs only extends to enlarge the rod through the establishment so that enlargement of the stem cavity reksigen very limited. Unlike the stem dicotyledonous, monocotyledonous stem anatomy or structure of young and old monocots have exactly the same structure.

Definition Leave

In morphological and anatomical, leaves the most varied plant organ. The leaves can be divided into several parts, the base of the leaf, petiole and leaf blade. Shape, structure, and size of leaves on different plants. It is used for the classification of plants. The leaves are composed of three types of network systems, namely the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular tissue.


a. The epidermis


The leaves have epidermis on the surface, both the top surface, called the surface adaksial, and on the lower surface, called the surface abaksial. Epidermal cells are generally compact form a compact layer, without intercellular space. In some plants, the epidermal cells elongated cells called long. On top of the short cell leaves the bone are composed of two types of cells, namely silica cells and cell cork. In the epidermis there is a relationship which is dotted by a very small hole. These sections are intercellular space bounded by two specialized cells called guard cells. Guard cells together form the stroma. Thus, closing the stomata consist of cells that have chloroplasts, cells that do not have chloroplasts, and the gap stomata. Stomata function in gas exchange and water evaporation. On land plants, the stomata are generally located on the lower leaf surface. Meanwhile, the water plants, stomata located on the upper surface of leaves.


b. Mesophyll


Mesophyll is a parenchyma tissue nature, next to the epidermis. Mesophyll consisting of palisade tissue and spongy tissue (spongy tissue). Both networks contain many chloroplasts thus becomes the site of photosynthesis. Palisade tissue located directly below the epidermis, but occasionally there are hypodermic tissue between the epidermis and the palisade. Parenchyma cells sponges varied shapes, can resemble palisade cells, because its diameter is almost the same or can be parallel to the longitudinal direction of the leaf surface. In the spongy tissue there is space between cells (the cells are not tightly). In the spongy tissue, there are fewer chloroplasts than palisade tissue. Characteristic of parenchyma cells the sponge is the lobes that connect adjacent cells.


c. Vascular tissue


Veins on the leaf tissue found in bone leaves. In addition, the leaves are delicate veins that act as arteries that carry food through the body. Serves to strengthen the bone leaves leaves. In addition, the veins of the leaves on the plant leaf acts as a framework.

Membrane Transport

The following will discuss the various movements across the cell membrane. These movements occur in the membranes of organelles within the cell. Basically, there are only four kinds of movement through the cell membrane, the diffusion, osmosis, active transport and endocytosis or exocytosis.


1. Diffusion


Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area with a high concentration to other areas with a lower concentration caused by the kinetic energy of the molecules. The rate of diffusion through the cell membrane depends on the difference in concentration, molecular size, charge, solubility in lipid particles and temperature. In general, substances that dissolve in lipids, the hydrophobic molecules diffuse through the membrane more easily than hydrophilic molecules. In addition, the cell membrane is also permeable to small molecules that are not charged as H2O, CO2, and O2. In the same circumstances, small molecules more rapidly diffuses through the cell membrane than large molecules. Simple diffusion of hydrophilic molecules is higher than 7-8 Å (Å = angstrom = 10-10 m) can hardly take place because it was blocked by a cell membrane, but such molecules can enter the cell by diffusion assisted or facilitated diffusion. Assisted diffusion depends on a special transport mechanism of the cell membrane like permease. Permease is a protein (enzyme) cell membrane that would give way to ions and uncharged polar molecules that can cross two hydrophobic lipid layer of the cell membrane. ADP diffusion into and out of the mitochondrial ATP also requires diffusion helped. In all helped the diffusion process, the molecules move in the direction of the concentration gradient.

2. Osmosis


In essence, osmosis is a process of diffusion. Osmosis is the diffusion of each solvent through a differentially permeable membrane. Universal solvent is water. Thus, it can be said that osmosis is the diffusion of water through a differentially permeable membrane of high concentration of solvent (water) to the solvent concentration is low (less water). Osmosis process will stop if the concentration inside and outside the cell has been balanced. When the cells have a higher concentration of dissolved substances (less water, or hypertonic) than outside the cell, then the water outside the cell to enter the cell. Events entry of water into the cell can result in rupture of cells in animal cells (hemolysis). Whereas, in the plant cells, the cells will only be inflated because retained by the cell wall. High concentration of water outside the cell called hypotonic. Meanwhile, when the cell has a lower concentration of solute (water) than outside the cell, then the water is inside the cells out of the cell. The discharge of water from the cell causes the cell to shrink. In animal cells, these cells are called Crenation contractionary, while in plant cells called plasmolysis.


3. Transport Active


Active transport is the movement of ions and molecules against a concentration gradient by using the energy to get in or out of the cell through the cell membrane. In addition to requiring energy in the form of ATP, active transport also needs an enzyme to move molecules and ions from a low concentration to a high concentration. In order for the enzyme to function as a pump, then the enzyme has to be able to bind ions and transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other side. Sugar molecules and amino acids are actively transported into the cell uses energy. This energy is obtained from Na + concentration gradient that occurs in the transport of sodium-potassium. With the help of a special transport proteins, the molecules of glucose and sodium ions into the cell together. Then, sodium is released again by the sodium-potassium pump. Thus, the sodium-potassium pump is not only active transport of Na + and K +, but it does not directly provide the energy for the transport process to another. Endocytosis is a material transport mechanism, such as macromolecular proteins from the fluid outside the cell to inside the cell by wrapping macromolecules such a way dent portion of the cell membrane to the inside. Sac formed then escape from the outside of the membrane and formed vacuoles in the cytoplasm. Then, fused with lysosomes and vacuoles endositik the contents of the organelles together to form secondary lysosomes. Lysosomal enzymes will digest macromolecules into soluble ingredients (amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides).



4. Endocytosis and Exocytosis


Endocytosis is a material transport mechanism, such as macromolecular proteins from the fluid outside the cell to inside the cell by wrapping macromolecules such a way dent portion of the cell membrane to the inside. Sac formed then escape from the outside of the membrane and formed vacuoles in the cytoplasm. Then, fused with lysosomes and vacuoles endositik the contents of the organelles together to form secondary lysosomes. Lysosomal enzymes will digest macromolecules into soluble ingredients (amino acids, sugars, and nucleotides). Exocytosis is the opposite of endocytosis. In the cells that secrete large amounts of protein, the protein is first gathered in a bag coated membrane in the Golgi apparatus, then moves to the cell surface, and closer to the cell membrane and emptied it out.

Definition of Chloroplast

Chloroplasts found only in plant cells and certain algae. In plant cells, chloroplasts are usually found in the form of discs with a diameter of 5 - 8 lm and thick 2-4 lm. Chloroplast bounded by a double membrane in which there are outer membrane system interval immersed in a fluid matrix called the stroma. The membrane, rich in phospholipids and proteins. In addition, chloroplasts also contain pigments most important of which is chlorophyll. Chlorophyll contained in structures such as stacks of plates called granum (plural: grana). The green color of chlorophyll which is incorporated in the membrane, giving the green color of chloroplasts and cell and plant tissues are exposed to light.


Chlorophyll captures solar energy and used for photosynthesis nutrients. Thus, the chloroplast is where photosynthesis. Photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are divided into two kinds, namely chlorophyll and carotenoids. Both of these pigments serve to absorb light energy, then convert it into chemical energy. Both pigments located in the chloroplast membrane. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light-purple, reflecting green light, unless covered by other color pigments. Carotenoids are pigments of yellow, orange, red or brown corrugated absorb light between the blue-violet.


Carotenoids found in some flowers and fruits that have bright colors and interesting insects, birds or other animals to help pollination or seed dispersal. For example, lycopene which is a carotene in the skin of red tomatoes. Carotenoids also serves as a protective chlorophyll in time too strong light and oxidation by oxygen produced by photosynthesis. There are two types of carotenoids, the carotenoids and xantofil.

Vacuole Definition and Function

 The vacuole is a cytoplasmic organelle that contains fluid, bounded by a membrane which is identical to the plasma membrane. Vacuole membrane is often formed by the folding of the cell to the inside. Materials or effluent can be found in the vacuole.


Plant cells containing many small vacuoles, but the maturation of cells, forming a large central vacuole. Food molecules are dissolved, waste material, and pigments often contained therein. Vacuole has several functions, among others:


1) Insert the water through permeable differential nature tonoplas to build cell turgor.


2) there vacuole-containing pigment in the form of a solution, such as antosian, including anthocyanins in red, blue, and violet, also ivory and yellow. Antosian can give color to flowers, fruits, shoots, and leaves. It is, useful to attract insects, birds, and other animals who contributed to the pollination or seed distribution.


3) plant vacuole, sometimes contain hydrolytic enzymes that can act as lysosomes life time. After the cells die, tonoplas loss permiabelnya differential nature so that the enzymes escape out causing autolysis (self-destruction).


4) Being a pile of remnants of metabolism, such as calcium oxalate crystals and several alkaloids, such as tannins. Latex (sap) can be assembled in the vacuoles in the form of an emulsion. Specialized cells that function is called latisifer, for example in Hevea brasiliensi and Cannabis sativa.


5) Being dissolved nutrients storage area that can be used at any time by cytoplasm. For example, sucrose and mineral salts.

Nucleus: Definition, Structure And Function

 The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell, found in all eukaryotic cells, but the cells of the phloem vessels adult and adult mammalian red blood cells. Core shapes are generally round to oval with a diameter of ± 10 μm (micro meter) and a length of ± 20 lm. Generally, each cell has only one core, but there are also organisms that have more than one core. For example, Paramecium which has two cores, the micronucleus and macro nucleus.


The nucleus has a very important role for cell life, because it serves to control all activities of the cell. This is because the cell nucleus contains the genetic information in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is able to replicate (make copies of themselves), followed by nuclear division. Thus, duplicate core contains the same DNA as the parent. Encased by a membrane nucleus and the nucleus containing chromatin, one or two nucleoli, and nucleoplasm. Core membrane consists of two layers of membrane. Deal directly with the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, the endoplasmic reticulum covered by the ribosome and is involved in protein synthesis. At the core there is a membrane pores that allow the exchange of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, such as the release of RNAd (ribonucleic acid ambassador), the entry of ribosomal proteins, nucleotides, and DNA molecules which regulate activities.


Nucleoplasm contained in the nucleus or core gum gel. Nucleoplasm containing various chemical substances, such as ions, proteins, enzymes, and nukleotid. Chromatin is composed of DNA strands attached to the protein basis. Chromatin means colored material, because it is easy to absorb the colors that can be seen under a microscope. In the process of cell division, chromatin intensively absorbing dyes so that more easily seen. Yarn chromatin constrict (shortened) resembles a twisted yarn called chromosomes. Nucleoli have a spherical shape, contained in the nucleoplasm which serves in making RNA. In addition, the nucleolus contains a lot of DNA that act as organizers of the nucleus and contains copies of the genes encodes ribosomal RNA. Nucleoli will dissolve and did not appear again in the prophase (initial level in the process of cell division) and will be made again by the organizers at the end of cell division (telophase).

Cell Parts Definitions

Cell Parts Definitions-The outer surface of each cell is limited by the smooth and elastic membrane called the cell membrane. This membrane is very important in the regulation of cell contents, because all the ingredients that go out or enter must pass through this membrane. This means, cell membrane prevents the entry of certain substances and facilitate the entry of other substances. In addition to restricting cell, plasma membrane also limits the various organelles within the cell, such as the vacuole, mitochondria, and chloroplasts.


The plasma membrane is permeable differential, having ultra microscopic pores through which certain substances. The pore size determines the maximum large molecules can pass through the membrane. In addition to large molecules, other factors that affect the entry of a substance into the cell is an electric charge, the number of water molecules and particles in the water solubility.


The cell membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules (fat combines with phosphate). The tail of the fatty acid hydrophobic (nonpolar), the second layer are mutually oriented molecules into.


Meanwhile, the head of the hydrophilic (polar) leads to a watery environment. In addition there is also a glycolipid phospholipid (fat fused with carbohydrates) and sterol (especially cholesterol fatty alcohol).


Meanwhile, the components located on the membrane proteins with different positions. Some proteins located peripheral, while others are embedded in the integral double layer of phospholipids. Some membrane proteins are enzymes, while others are receptors for hormones or certain other compounds. The composition of the membrane lipids and proteins constituent varies, depending on the type and function of the membrane itself. However, the membrane has the same characteristics, which are selectively permeable to molecules. Thus, the cell membrane can maintain cell shape and size.

Cell Definition

Definition Cell-term first used cell by Robert Hooke, about 300 years ago, for small spaces like a box he saw when he watched the cork and other plant material under a microscope. Then, in 1839, introduced the term Expert Physiology Purkinye living protoplasm to the substance of the cell. The term protoplasm member Purkinye not understanding the chemical and physical obvious, but can be used to refer to all substances that are organized in cells. In the same year, 1839, an expert Botany Zoology Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann Experts from Germany, proving that living cells contain cytoplasmic fluid for all basic activities of living things. Proof is developing into cell theory states that all the bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells, which is the basic unit of life.


There are some creatures whose body consists of only one cell. Although only consists of one cell, the living creature can perform all the functions of life. These organisms also have characteristics of living things, such as eating, growing, and response to stimuli. In addition to single cell creatures, there are many other living creatures whose body is made up of many cells. Each cell has the shape and function of different. This indicates that the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
Cell consists of three main parts, namely the plasma membrane or cell membrane, cytoplasm and cell organelles. Inter cell parts are included so that the overall coordination jointly construct a compact system. In the living body composed of many cells, cells that have the same form groups to perform a specific function, called a network. One group of networks can be merged into a single organ. These organs combine to form organ systems, such as the digestive system and the nervous system. Organ systems work together to form the individual. Plant cells and animal cells have similarities and differences in cell structure and function. Equation plant cell and animal cell is the second cell has a cell parts, such as the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.